Rationale for the form and content of my podcast

My research log began as a way to document and answer my initial research questions, and I continue to delve deeper into a select few in my podcast in order to give them the depth that they deserve. Casting my net wide, I initially came up with a broad range of topics that I thought could illuminate some interesting details about my object:

• Decorative themes 
• Techniques 
• History of Persian Ceramics - pre-Islamic art and the spread of Islam 
• Colours 
• Decorative motifs 
• Calligraphy 

This provided the basis for much of my work, and guided my exploration of the bowl. However, as broad and overarching themes, I wanted to narrow my focus for the podcast in order to make the best of the time limit. Therefore, I focus on the decorative themes of my object as the basis of the podcast. Whilst my research took a turn in the middle given the spanner from a translational perspective, my exploration was very interesting and raised some interesting questions about the value and authenticity of art.

Form

The form of my podcast is audio-visual, with my voice-over alongside complimenting imagery and videos to support my argument and show my image in further depth. I begin the introduction and conclude the podcast with a brief feature of Arabic muwashshahah music from the 13th century, however decided not to use this throughout the duration of the podcast. This was mainly to minimise distraction and ensure clarity of voice throughout the duration. In addition, because of changing imagery and videography in the podcast, I didn't want the audience's senses to be overwhelmed.

The main bulk of my video and imagery has come from primary sources and my own filming of the object and related pottery in the Oriental Museum. This was an amazing and unique opportunity to have and I really appreciated the chance on this module to have some hands-on time with the objects themselves to fully see up close the mastery in person. However, it did come with some difficulty as the fragile nature of the bowl meant I had to be very careful with it and this combined with getting steady footage did come as a challenge.

Secondary imagery that I used has mainly been taken from online sources (Google Arts and Cultures), the Metropolitan Museum and V&A and documentation from the National Arts Fund.

Content

My podcast begins with a title page, and Arabic music, shortly moving into a description of my object and reasoning behind choosing it. This music is calming, slow and religious in nature to reflect my object, and only carries on through the introduction in order to remove the risk of being too distracting - a problem I found in a few of the other podcasts that I had watched. I then move to a historical exploration of the previous owner of the pot, and how my object came to be in Durham. This is backed by images of the documentation between the National Arts Fund and Durham Oriental museum to show the nature of the transaction.

Following this I quickly bring into consideration the 8 other bowls in the bequest to begin a brief introductory comparison. I then begin a description of the techniques used to create the bowls illustrating the point with video footage of a potter making a pot out of fritware. I then go on to discuss the history of the techniques and how, at the beginning of the 12th century new pathways were opened up to artists due to new technology and knowledge, allowing a greater colour scheme.

Having explored some background knowledge about the craft, I go on to specifically cover the themes that I set out in my research questions. These include Imagery, Geometry, Arabesque and Calligraphy in Islamic Art. I decided to section each theme carefully, in order that the background imagery match well and to give a more chronological order to my podcast. In addition, I have tried to specifically reference their relation to my object and comparison objects in order to allow the audience to clearly see my points.

My podcast concludes with a reference to the contemporary value of the pots in the Durham Henry Van Der Bergh bequest, and a look as to the reasons why. The podcast is finished in much the same way it started, with music in the background, in order to nicely round it off and bring a cyclical nature to its presentation.

I had to cut down my podcast a lot from the original research that I had garnered for it because of time limitations but I hope I made the right decisions in where the material should come from in the end for a nicely flowing and interesting talk. However, I was still able to at least touch on all my main Research Questions, whilst hopefully providing a good depth to my podcast too.

Geometry and Arabesque in Islamic Art

If calligraphy is one unifying factor of Islamic art, geometry is another. Despite being made up of a huge geographic area with various ethnicities, cultures, environments and artistic traditions - geometry unites them all. There are a number of principles which bind this feature together, which shall be explored through out the post.

El-said and Parman (1976) referred to the use of geometry in Islamic art and architecture as a 'unifying concept of composition despite the diversity of materials, forms or styles used'. They also traced this unifying concept to all art forms, including 'decorative arts, calligraphy, architecture and the composition of music and Arabic poetry' (El-Said and Parman 1976). Geometric patterns have several principles and features, including:

1) Symmetry - geometric patterns have a balance and harmony of proportion between their basic structures.
2) Repetition - a repeat unit or cell is the base for geometric patterns. This repeat unit can be in the shape of a square or a hexagon
3) Scalability - geometric patterns can be used in any size and scale. For example, we can see a pattern on an architectural wall tens of feet high, and the same pattern can be seen on a miniature painting a few inches in size
4) Adaptability - Islamic art elements can be employed with many artistic techniques on a variety of media
5) Coverage - Islamic art tends to cover the entire object that is used for the design. Whether the object is a small dish or an architectural wall, Islamic art elements, including geometric patterns, tend to over the entire object.
6) Movement - Patterns in Islamic art and architecture are not static. The interlacing of strands of geometric patterns in complex star configurations and polygons conveys an illusion of never-ending movement (Behrens-Abouseif, 1999).
7) Frames - the majority of geometric patterns are framed or placed within a pre-calculated surface or framed object.

Structure and construction

Geometric patterns vary in design from basic shapes to more complex patterning with stars and polygons. However, the more elaborate are still built from more basic elements such as triangles and circles to build up and give a more intricate pattern. Issam El-Said (1993) states that Islamic geometrical patterns are based on the 'Square and Hexagonal Repeat Unit and the Root Two and Root Three System of Proportion.' Simply put, this means that a circle can be divided into four (or multiples of four) equal parts and then patterns can be derived from the remaining shapes. The Root Three system similarly divides shapes but into groups of six, or multiples of six.

The most famous traditional practice of creating geometric designs in Islamic art is called 'Zillij' (pronounces 'ze-leej'). This technique results from cutting recognisable shapes to make patterns and is often linked to Moroccan ceramics. Arranged like a puzzle, Zillij shapes are cut from tiles and then stuck together to create the walls and floors of mosques, homes and schools.

Interpretations of Geometric Patterns

Albas and Salman (1995) state that Muslims recognised in geometry 'the unifying intermediary between the material and the spiritual world' (p9). Nasr (1987) notes that the octagon is a result of a rotated square, which represents the four elements of the universe (Water, Earth, Fire, Air). It is not solely as a result of being unable to represent people.

Keith Critchlow (1976) has offered a cosmological analysis of geometrical patterns in Islamic art and architecture. He indicated that from the circle originate the three most fundamental figures in Islamic art. The first and simplest is the triangle, which originates from the expansion of one circle into three circles, and symbolises 'human consciousness and the three basic biological functions - ingestion, digestion and excretion' (p16). Expanding the circle can give us the other two fundamental shapes of Islamic art, the square and the hexagon: 'A square often symbolises earth and its materiality and a hexagon represents heaven.'

Arabesque in Islamic Art

The use of floral, vegetal and plant forms also occurs plentifully in Islamic art, often in a spiral pattern. This is named 'arabesque' - 'a term that refers to an ornament or style that employs flower, foliage or fruit to produce an intricate pattern of interlaced lines'.

The arabesque motifs that are used in Islamic art and architecture underwent various changes and developments from pre-Islamic cultures and civilisations to what they are today. The splitting of stems in arabesque designs produces a series of 'counter-poised, leafy, secondary stems, which can in turn split again or return to be reintegrated into the main stem' (Jones, 1978, p.171).

The use of arabesque is often used to point towards and recognise a Divine Presence and the beauty of nature which he has bestowed upon earth. Floral and plant motifs are an appreciation for God's creations. This again hints to the religious function of my pot, as well can appreciated the beautiful black flowers that appear to grow from the middle.

Calligraphy in Islamic Art

The Art of Writing in Islamic Art

There are several unifying elements of Islamic art, of which calligraphy is one. The word for 'calligraphy' in Arabic is 'handast al-khatt' which can roughly be translated to 'the geometry of writing'. The straight and curved lines in this writing are always perfectly geometrically proportioned, so much so that they have become an artform which has transcended the centuries and can still be seen in contemporary works today.

In addition to it being an art form in its own right, Arabic calligraphy also decorates architectural sites and decorations - particularly those with religious orientation. It is a highly respected art form and one that many artists use to showcase their talents.

Safadi (1978) writes that:

'The primacy of the word in Islam is reflected in the virtually universal application of calligraphy. Writing is given pride of place on all kinds of objects - objects of everyday use as well as entire wall surfaces, mosque furniture, the interiors and exteriors of mosques, tombs, and al-Kaaba, the most famous sanctuary of Islam.'

Arabic calligraphy is often devoted to excerpts from the Qur'an, presenting the passages as a beautiful art form.

'Recite and you Lord is the Most Bounteous, He has taught the use of the pen. Taught man that which he knew not.' (Qur'an 96:1-5)  

Geometric proportion of Arabic Letters

Geometrical principles play a large part in the creation of calligraphy and the proportioning that letters are given. Khatibi and Sijelmassi (1996) note that 'the legibility of a text and the beauty of its line require rules of proportion' (p. 46). The alif is the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, and lays out the proportioning for the rest of them. The alif takes the form of a straight and vertical stroke and varies from three to two dots high and one dot wide (created by pressing the tip of a reed pen to paper.

The Development of Arabic Calligraphy

The Arabic alphabet developed itself from Aramaic script and then forked out into different styles.

There are many styles used in Arabic calligraphy, but only six are widely used. The Kufic style is noted for its proportional measurements, angularity, and squareness, and as one of the earliest styles to be used to record the Qur'an. The other five styles are noted for their cursive letters, much like it seen on my bowl, and their use as ornamental scripts. Additionally, other styles were used and developed, including the Tughra, which was used by the Ottoman sultans as their signature. Zoomorphic calligraphy was also developed in which Arabic letters or words are manipulated and structured into the shape of a human figure, a bird, an animal or an object. This is also due to the discouragement of figurative images in sacred art and architecture.

Pieces with Arabic inscription on them were created either for daily use or decoration in order to show off the messages that they displayed. Given the expensive nature of the materials my pot is made from, it is more likely to be a decorative item for a wealthy patron.

Sources:
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/calligraphy
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00043125.2002.11651482?casa_token=uPnTXKZuu6UAAAAA:-B0ajbrqAgVpMhRytI982AKP70_5YmVxaU0Q0IfFbGJBX943fo4hUTD2RxaKyfFvA6ZXglbOh8lIxQ

Owners and path of the bowl

In order to get a deeper appreciation of the bowl, I wanted to track its history to coming to the art fund and get a better idea of who it's previous owners had been. The bowls originally belonged to Henry Van den Bergh, who was an industrialist born in Oss in the Netherlands, and moved to London in 1870 to work in the family margarine business.

This merged with Lever Brothers to become Unilever in 1929. He because a member of the Executive Committee of the National Art Collections Fund (q.v.) in the 1910s-1920s. He was a major donor, throughout the National Art Collections Fund, to most Departments of the British Museum and of Dutch tiles to the Victoria and Albert Museum.

The National Art Collections Fund hold an extract of his will, which states that his children (Col Donald Van den Bergh, d. 1949; Duncan Van den Bergh, Mrs. S. Roskill, d. 1983; and Mrs Dorrit Talbot) were to draw lots for his art works, which would then be held by that child for life and following their death, to be distributed by the Trustees of the Van den Bergh Family Trust to the National Gallery, the British Museum, the V&A, the Tate and the Art Fund, entirely at the discretion of the Trustees.

Elisabeth Henrietta Van den Bergh (1904-1983) was the daughter of Henry Van den Bergh and Henrietta Spanjaard. Unfortunately, information about her is limited to the extent that not much more is available online about her than that she married Stephen Wentworh Roskill in 1930 and then died aged 79 in 1984.

After my interaction with Nancy Saul from the Arts Fund, I was provided with the above documentation surrounding the bequest and its path to Durham. Whilst some of the notes and letters were a little hard to read, I found the conversation a fascinating insight into how art deals like this are made. For a set of nine bowls the course of transaction seemed far shorter than I assumed it would be so it taught me a lot about the nature of deals in the art world.

Sources:
https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Van_den_Bergh-308
https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/term_details.aspx?bioId=101846

History and context of Iranian Bowls

In order to fully appreciate the art and history behind my chosen object, I wanted to fully research the context of the history of Persian pottery. My research led me down a rabbit hole, of which I have tried to summarise the main findings below. I found it fascinating to see how such an art form has evolved over time and it has given me a new appreciation for the medium. 

"The taste and talent of this people can be seen through the designs of their earthen wares", R. Ghirshman

History/Overview: 

• The history pottery in Iran goes back to ancient times when clay was baked in order to meet the agricultural needs of the people 
• Iranian pottery (gombroon) has continued to develop to present day 
• One of the oldest Persian art forms Tappeh, dates back to 5BC and has been unearthed from several burial mounds. 
• Due to Irans geographical position, almost all parts of the country were involved in pottery making. However, recent archaeological research has revealed the four major pottery manufacturing areas. These included the western part of the country, namely the area west of the Zagros mountains (Lurestan), and the area south of the Caspian Sea (Gilan and Mazandaran provinces). 
• These two areas are thought to be the earliest. The third region is in the northwestern part of the country, in Azarbaijan province. The fourth area is in the southeast, i.e. the Kerman region and Baluchestan. 
• Some also cite the Kavir area, where the history of pottery making can be dated back to the 8th millennium BCE.
• Over time, simple pottery began to be decorated, often with geometric designs. These were skilful, following rules and give Iran the name of birthplace of earthenware pottery.
• The earliest pottery extant is supposed to be a metallic lustre ware, but over time potters developed new forms and styles to produce specific genres of ceramic
• The most refined wares were destined for stately homes of the wealthy or to export. This meant that a lot of money flowed into the industry.

For the purpose of my research, I then went on to go and focus on the Middle Islamic Period which ran from the 11th-15th century CE.

Seljuq Dynasty (1037–1194)

At the advent of the 11th century CE the Seljuqs settled in Iran and brought the country together under one rule. Whilst this union didn't last more than one and a half centuries, it did produce great quantities of literature, philosophy, in architecture and in all fields of the Iranian arts, progressing their form and nature greatly. The Seljuqs were great supporters of the arts themselves, and their investment and patronage helped revive pre-Islamic traditions and develop new techniques (especially in metalwork and pottery).

Specifically looking at pottery, the most important introduction was that of the new white frit material, of which my bowl is made from. This new base made the application of alkaline glazes easier and allowed for more finessed work, with considerably thinner shapes than previous. Potters greatly admired the Chinese Song porcelain and their influence can clearly be seen in this new work.

The main cities of Iranian pottery production were Ray, Kashan, Jorjan, and Nishapur.

The main types of pottery being produced were:  

• white wares, 
• monochrome glazed wares, 
• carved or laqabi wares, 
• lustre-painted wares, 
• underglaze-painted wares, and 
• overglaze-painted, so-called minai and lajvardina wares. 

It must also be noted that unglazed wares were also made and refined during this time.

The Seljuqs were usurped by the Khwarizmshahian Dynasty in the second half of the 12th century but trends of creativity continued up until the Mongol Invasion. 

Timurid Pottery (1370-1502 CE)

In 1393 CE a new invasion threatened Iran from Timur, who came with a large army and destroyed many of the main cities including Jorjan, Esfahan, Shiraz and Kerman. Timur took many of the best artists with him to Samarkand, and thus established it as a centre for Persian arts - particularly for architecture and architectural decoration. When Shah Rukh (1404-1447 CE) took reign, the arts were elevated to a new level, as a calligrapher himself.

Persian miniature painting flourished; beautiful religious building were erected all over the Timurid realm. : Architectural decoration becomes important at which time the most beautiful and elaborate faience mosaic decoration was made. It is perhaps sufficient to mention the shrine complex, the Shah-e Zendeh in Samarkand, or the Gur-e Amir, Timur's mausoleum, the Madrasah of Gauhar Shah in Herat and Mashhad, or perhaps the most famous and best known, Majid-e Kabud (the Blue Mosque) in Tabriz.

Whilst there has been little investigation into the Persian pottery of the period, it appears that the same types have been produced all over, as with the Mongols. 'Kubachi' wares seem to have become more mainstream though, painted in black under blue or turquoise glaze - the same colours that appear on my bowl. As also with my bowl, the decoration consisted of mainly floral designs and geometric forms. Interestingly, two examples that have been found had 15th CE dates inscribed, thus were definitely Timurid. The name Kubachi originates as the name of a small village in Daghestan in the Caucasus as it was there that this pottery was first found, in the houses of peasants. However, it is believed that the people of Kubachi were metalworkers instead, which they tended to trade for this type of pottery and it is now surmised that in fact 'Kubachi' wares were produced in the northwestern part of Iran (Tabriz). 

Real or fake?

Following on from my conversation with the Islamic department in Durham, I decided to delve deeper into the issues with real vs. fake items within Islamic pottery. The history that I came across was incredible interesting, with numerous counterfeit items having been discovered and sold on the market as genuine. Whilst I didn't find anything relating to mistranslations, I did come across several riveting articles that suggested that even in collections as prestigious as the V&A, the authenticity of items was still being disproved.

For example, the bowl pictured below, believed to be a 'genuine' dish of medieval Iranian pottery turned out not to be as straightforward an object as it originally appeared. The dish, decorated with a lively horseman used to be one of the most prestigious pieces in the Islamic collections of the Victoria and Albert museum.

Lustre dish, Iran, late 12th century. Museum no. C.7-1947. In its 'original' state

Believed to have been made in Iran around 800 years ago, it was considered one of the prime pieces of lustre-decorated pottery. I've covered lustre ware in more depth in another blogpost, but it was one of the most expensive and sophisticated technique in Arabic pottery at the time, adding to the value of the item. The clay, glaze, shape and style of the bowl all corroborated its Iranian origin from the town of Kashan, where lustre pottery was a specialty. 

However, as Arthur Lane, Keeper of Ceramics for the V and A studied the bowl in his seminal book, Early Islamic Pottery, he became more aware of the Egyptian influence in the subject matter (particularly the non-Iranian style of the painting of the head with its square head and pointed beard - in comparison to the normal 'moon-face' of Iranian beauty). With the contrasts clear, he argued that this bowl had instead come to Iran from Egypt in the 12th century. 

Lustre dish, Iran, late 12th century. Museum no. C.7-1947. After the overpainting of the 'restoration' had been removed

Whilst he was right about it's origins, there were further layers to uncovering it's authenticity. The overpainting of the bowl was removed in a cleaning, and the uncovered that the dish was in fact never one piece, but stitched together from fragments that have been pieced together and carefully joined as the painting on them doesn't join.

With all the fragments dating back to the same place, it is clear that they are all genuine 12th century Iranian lustre, that have been carefully put together from different objects. Experts now believe that at least two, if not more broken pieces were used to create one 'complete vessel' possible with the use of tiles as well to satisfy the demands of collectors and museums. The work was often so masterfully done, especially with additional glaze on top, that it fooled even the best experts such as Arthur Lane.

This kind of faking, where original bits are 'lashed up' (to use the trade jargon), is common in Islamic pottery, where many fragments are found on archaeological sites all over the Middle East, but complete vessels are a rarity.

Dish, lustre pottery, Iran, late 12th century, (Museum no. C.7-1947). Detail of the face showing its reconstruction

Source: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/r/real-or-fake/

Translation problems and finding fakes

After a email chain inquiry with the oriental museum, it has transpired that my pottery may not have quite so clear an origin as expected.

Dear Dr. Kouhi-Esfahani,

As part of my Objects of Desire module we are required to study an object in depth and create an audio-visual podcast about it. I have selected an Iranian bowl and have been put in contact with you to help translate the inscription on the bowl to help me further my research.
Is this something that you would be able to do if I provided some photographs?

Your help would be much appreciated,Kind regards,
Maddy

Hi Maddy:Please send me photo's of the bowl so I see how to help you.
Best

Hi Dr. Marzieh, 
Thanks for your quick reply, I have attached the images I have to the email. 
Thank you again, 
Maddy  

Dear Maddy:Neither the writing on the bowl nor the bowl itself is Persian. I've sent the photos to an art specialist in Iran last night and he confirmed that the bowl is not Perian/Iranian.He said he might be able to consult some senior professionals about the likely origins of the artefact, but I won't promise as he is a very busy person.I'm sorry that I was not able to help more positively.
Best

Dear Dr. Marzieh, 
Thank you for letting me know. It would be amazing for my research if he was able to but I understand that it may not be possible. 
Thanks again and kind regards, 
Maddy  

Dear Maddy:They have asked if they could have a more clear picture especially from the inside of the bowl. They may then be able to help.
Best

Dear Dr. Marzieh, 
I have attached all the images that I have to this email. 
Thanks and best wishes, 
Maddy 

I am eagerly waiting her response, but in the mean time have decided to look into fakes and replicas to try and uncover what may have been the real provenance of my bowl. The following is an excerpt from a book about forgeries in Islamic pottery.

The forging of Islamic pottery - that is the deliberate making of copies with intent to deceive - has a surprisingly long history. The first piece to be considered as such - a turquoise-glazed jar with moulded decoration - entered the V&A in 1876, and it prompted immediate debate: a note in the register reads 'Mr Caspar Clarke lately returned from Persia says that about a dozen jars of this design were made in Persia about 30 years ago for a French gentleman, and that he knows the man who made the moulds.' This however did not prevent the Museum from acquiring in 1884, a suspiciously similar turquoise jar with moulded decoration of figures and mounted riders. It came as part of the extensive and highly revered Castellani collection, for the not insignificant sum of £25/10/- the cataloguing was however cautious and no date was given (fig.12). And again, in 1928 another jar, with the inscription 'made by Hared' and dated 688 H/1289 CE, was offered as a gift, and unquestioningly accepted as genuine. To us now, each piece seems absurdly worse than the last, though each apparently raised less and less suspicion.

An illustration of how forgers have to keep up with the growth of knowledge of their clients is afford by two forgeries of Sultanabad ware. The first, a piece acquired by the V&A in 1913 is, to modern eyes, laughably inept: flimsy material (quite like much Qajar pottery), weak, misunderstood shape, and poor draftsmanship of an atypical design - everything speaks against it. Yet it was accessioned without comment for £25 as a genuine 13th century piece. This lack of judgement is surprising considering how much good genuine Sultanabad was then known. Compare this with the forgery identified by TL testing of a piece formerly in the Barlow collection, not at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Suspicion raised perhaps because it was 'too good to be true' - too big, in too good a condition, too clean and spritely in its drawing. Only after confirmation of its recent manufacture do we start to notice, for example, a suspicious uniformity in the drawing, a laborious detailing of the design ... the forgers had learnt much in little over half a century.

The mass of fraudulent pieces of Garrus ware are, in every interesting way, forgeries, though technically they may be classified as fakes. The fact that the basic bowl may be an innocent piece of recent peasant-ware - a yoghurt bowl, or the like, perhaps - does not redeem the decoration now found on them. Though the drawing style alone is sufficient to condemn many of them, detailed observation shows how new designs were cut through the original glaze into the clay body, and a new glaze applied, sometimes to the whole piece though often to the newly cut decoration alone. In these cases there is a remarkable contrast between the textures of the two glazes, such as is never seen on original work where a single glaze covers the entire surface. This calls into question a large jar in the V&A where there appears to be a definite second application of glaze over the top half of the body; and where the style and manner of carving of the main decoration of animals and inscription stand at odds with other carved decoration at the neck; and where the inscription is uniquely and inexplicably upside-down. This perhaps started life as a handsome, but simple storage jar with a brief band of chip-carved decoration round the neck. Other tell-tale signs of reworking include splashes or runs of colour in the original glaze which no not flow across the newly cut areas. There was great excitement amongst collectors for these wares in the 1920s and 1930s when fantastic theories about their Zoroastrian or 'Gabri' fire-worshipping association appeared to cloud any connoisseurly judgment.

The forging of ceramics implies considerable commitment of resources to create new articles from scratch, and it is therefore not surprising that forgeries tend to come in groups.

Source: Watson, 2004, 523

There was no mention in my research about different languages or incorrect translations so it seems to me that there is still a chance that the provenance of this bowl should not be in doubt. I will be in touch with other translators in order to further clarify the situation but am hopeful for now that this may have just been a mistake.

Technique

As the colour of my object was one of the first things that grabbed my attention, researching the history around the technique of this kind of pottery was one of my first research questions. And the information that I have come across has been fascinating. 

Though there are numerous colours that can be made from metallic ores, their behaviour in conjunction with the glaze and the heat of the kiln has always been hard to manage. The heat necessary to fire the pottery and fuse it to the glaze historically tended to either completely ruin the colour or affect its stability. Until the beginning of the 12th century, this meant that a very limited palette of colours was available. However, at the advent of this new age, they discovered that if a pot was fired and glazed first at a high temperature, they could then apply more layers of the less stable colours on top and fire again at a lower temperature - vastly opening up the range of hues available to them. 

Whilst double firing had been practised elsewhere in lustre painting since the 9th century, they were somewhat surprisingly only adopted by Persian potters later and were never adopted in Syria or Egypt. 

There were two ways of using low-temperature colours. In the first, the haft rang or 'seven colour' process described by Abulqasim of Kashan, parts of the design were painted in clear pale blue, purple and green on or under the raw glaze before the pot received its first firing; black outlines and other supplementary colours mixed with a vitreous flux were then added and fixed in one or more further firings at a lower temperature.  Conspicuous among the supplementary colours were a shiny black, chestnut, Pompeian red, white, and leaf gilding. For this composite technique the name minai (enamel) is now used by dealers and collectors. Exquisite effects were often obtained by using as ground an opaque glaze stained pale turquoise blue - the colour of a hedge-sparrow's egg (pictured), one of the rarest and most surprising in nature. We also find lilac tones and a very deep, resonant blue. 

Potters of built up relief in parts to be guilded, or modelled figures themselves in high relief. Where pottery was constantly travelling to and fro between painter and kiln, these areas almost built themselves up. From my object, I can see clearly how the potter has taken advantage of the new palette available to them, and with beautiful use of gold leaf as well.

Rayy, Kashan, and perhaps Sava are the main locations where the minai technique was used, although these schools cannot be isolated with any certainty, even by the most knowledgeable art collectors. Early pieces, especially though which were experimental, show mini colours with a combination of lustre painting in the Kashan style. One also has to be aware that the dates printed on mini vessels are often fraudulent to take advantage of the arts market. However, it seems clear that this kind of pottery originated in the last quarter of the 12th centre and had past by the time of the Mongol invasions in the 1220's. 

But Abulqasim and a later commentator on his work also refer to a lajvardian ware still made at the end of the thirteenth century. This can be identified with the pottery and tiles painted over the glaze in a limited palette of opaque red, black, white and gold leaf, the latter being cut into angular shapes before application. Glazes or deep rich blue (lajvard) and turquoise were favourite ground colours, and the designs often show the Chinese lotus, phoenix and dragon that became popular under the Ilkhanid Mongol rulers. In shapes the lajvardina wares resemble the lustre and underglaze painted wares of the Sultanabad district; they tend to be clumsy in potting and uninteresting in ornament. The coarse and greyish body material is also of inferior quality.

Source: Lane, 1947

Bibliography

Websites:

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CAIS (n.d.). The Homepage of the Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)©. [online] Cais-soas.com. Available at: http://www.cais-soas.com [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Encyclopedia Iranica (2019). CALLIGRAPHY – Encyclopaedia Iranica. [online] Iranicaonline.org. Available at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/calligraphy [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Komaroff, L. (2001). The Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256–1353). [online] Metmuseum.org. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ilkh/hd_ilkh.htm [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Met Museum (2019). Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art. [online] Metmuseum.org. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vege/hd_vege.htm [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Met Museum (2018). Possible Passage to England. [online] Metmuseum.org. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isac/hd_isac.htm - possible passage into England? [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Met Museum (2001). The Nature of Islamic Art. [online] Metmuseum.org. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/orna/hd_orna.htm [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Met Museum (2001). Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art. [online] Metmuseum.org. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Met Museum (2001). Calligraphy in Islamic Art. [online] Metmuseum.org. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cali/hd_cali.htm [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Rackham, B. (1923). Dutch tiles, the Van den Bergh gift. [online] HathiTrust. Available at: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101075437713;view=1up;seq=7 [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Roskill, E., London, E., Bergh, H., Bergh, H., J.P., D., Army, S., Army, R., Talbot, D., R.N., S. and London, E. (2019). Elisabeth Henrietta Charlotte (Van den Bergh) Roskill (1904-1983) | WikiTree FREE Family Tree. [online]

Vam.ac.uk. (2019). Real or Fake? - Victoria and Albert Museum. [online] Available at: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/r/real-or-fake/ [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].Wikitree.com. Available at: https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Van_den_Bergh-308 [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Books:

Akbari, S.C. (2009) Idols in the East : European representations of Islam and the Orient, 1100-1450. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Blair, Sheila S. Islamic Calligraphy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006.

Bloom, J. (ed.) (2002) Early Islamic art and architecture. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Cooper, Emmanuel 1972 A History of Pottery. Longham Group Limited. London.

Critchlow, K. (1976) Islamic patterns : an analytical and cosmological approach. London: Thames and Hudson.

Fukai, Shinji 1981 Ceramics of Ancient Persia. Weatherhill/Tankosha publishers. New York, Tokyo.

Grabar, O. (2005) Early Islamic art, 650-1100. Aldershot: Ashgate Variorum.

Hillenbrand, R. (1999) Islamic art and architecture. London: Thames and Hudson.

Kühnel, Ernst. The Arabesque: Meaning and Transformation of an Ornament. Graz: Verlag für Sammler, 1977.

Lane, A. (1947). Early Islamic pottery. London: Faber and Faber.

Rice, David Talbot 1965 Islamic Art. Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers. New York.

Sinopoli, Carla M.1991 Approaches to Archaeological Ceramics. Plenum Press, New York.

Vernoit, S. (ed.) (1999) Discovering Islamic art : scholars, collectors and collections 1850-1950. London: I. B. Tauris.

Watson, O. (2004) Ceramics from Islamic lands. London: Thames & Hudson, in association with the al-Sabah Collection, Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyyah, Kuwait National Museum.

Wilkinson, C. K.1973 Nishapur: Pottery of the Early Islamic Period. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Yoshida, Mitsukuni 1972 In Search of Persian Pottery. John Weatherhill, Inc., Baltimore

Journals:

Oweis, F. (2002). Islamic Art as an Educational Tool about the Teaching of Islam. Art Education, 55(2), p.18.

Watson, O. (2004). Fakes and forgeries in Islamic Pottery. KUNST UND KUNSTHANDWERK IM ISLAM 2. BAMBERGER SYMPOSIUM DER ISLAMISCHEN KUNST, [online] 23(2), pp.517-539. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25817948.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Ae535fda3d0d8d61ab5facf3872e7ee4a [Accessed 14 Apr. 2019].

Item links:

http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O279508/bowl-unknown/

https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/25434/lot/19/?category=list&length=10&page=2

https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/18950/lot/122/

https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/19516/lot/33/